Priority Habitats

Emergent Marsh (high energy coastal)

Coastal wetlands dominated by emergent macrophytes along shorelines and bays comprise one of the most extensive habitat types in the LGBFR AOC. Soils are typically inundated for much of the year and consist of organic mucks overlaying circumneutral to alkaline bedrock. Exposure to waves creates a high energy environment that can be especially severe along north-exposed shorelines of the lower bay. These coastal wetlands, in turn, may provide a valuable ecological service by buffering wave effects and preventing shoreline erosion (Shepard et al. 2011). Dominant native species include cattails (Typha spp., historically T. latifolia), bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp.), river bulrush (Bolboschoenus fluviatilis), bur-reeds (Sparganium spp.), arrowheads (Sagittaria spp.), true rushes (Juncus spp.), and spikerush (Eleocharis spp.). Covering 20% of the AOC, coastal emergent marshes are now characteristically dominated by two invasive species, common reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis) and hybrid cattail (Typha × glauca). Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundicacea) is a frequent, invasive dominant of the inland zone of emergent marshes, and its dominance may continue inland to southern sedge meadow communities. High energy coastal, emergent marsh habitat can be found throughout the LGBFR AOC at Point au Sable, UW-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Amusement Park Shoreline, Ken Euers Nature Area, Duck Creek, Peter's Marsh, Cottage Grove Complex, Malchow/Olson Tract, Long Tail Point, Dead horse Bay, and Sensiba South. Virtually all of these areas are invaded by Phragmites and Typha × glauca, although high water levels during recent years (2016-17) have helped promote increased plant species diversity at many of these sites. Native plant diversity, including both emergent and submergent vegetation, creates a healthy ecosystem and important resources for fish and wildlife species, including spawning and nursery habitat for fish and anurans. The plants provide oxygen and filter the water by absorbing certain nutrients and preventing algal blooms. Emergent wetlands also may have a positive effect on water clarity by reducing wind resuspension of sediments. Marsh birds, such as rails, Marsh Wren (Cistothorus palustris), Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) and others, use coastal marshes extensively for feeding and nesting.

Although wave action and exposure to turbid water from the Fox River and other Green Bay tributaries may constrain the integrity of coastal emergent marsh vegetation, connection to the bay is critical for fish access and sustaining habitat diversity and high productivity (Jude and Pappas 1992). Brazner and Beals (1997), Brazner (1997), and others have demonstrated that coastal wetlands in Green Bay, particularly those that are minimally influenced by development, provide vital habitat for economically and ecologically important fish species.

Several researchers have demonstrated the importance of interspersion of marsh vegetation and open water (Rehm and Baldassarre 2007, Tozer et al. 2010, Bolenbaugh et al. 2011) for wetland breeding birds. Natural disturbances such as wind or ice damage, flooding, and herbivory by muskrats, create heterogeneous marsh habitat for species that use dense vegetation for nesting but open water for feeding. Preserving or promoting a natural disturbance regime therefore should be a part of long-term conservation of high energy coastal marsh. In the LGBFR AOC. Diked wetlands provide some opportunity to control wetland disturbance dynamics, but mismanagement of these artificial systems might promote the spread of invasive species and reduce the importance of coastal wetlands as fish habitat (Wilcox and Whillans 1999, Herrick and Wolf 2005, Monfils et al. 2015).

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Emergent Marsh (High Energy Coastal) page.

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Emergent Marsh (inland)

This community is an open wetland on circumneutral to alkaline, mineral soils around the margins of ponds and lakes, and dominated by emergent macrophytes. As is characteristic of emergent marshes, the soil is inundated with water for much of the year. Dominant native plant species include cattails (Typha latifolia, historically), bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp.), bur-reeds (Sparganium spp.), arrowheads (Sagittaria spp.), true rushes (Juncus spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), and true sedges (Carex spp.). Covering about 7% of the LGBFR AOC, inland emergent marshes are often invaded by common reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis), hybrid cattail (Typha × glauca), reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), and sometimes also by narrow-leaved cattail (Typha angustifolia). Native plant diversity, including both emergent and submergent vegetation, creates a healthy ecosystem. The plants provide oxygen and filter the water by absorbing certain nutrients and preventing algal blooms. Inland emergent marshes also provide safe spawning habitat for fish and nesting habitat for birds and amphibians.

Inland emergent marsh habitat can be found throughout the LGBFR AOC in such localities as Point au Sable, Barina Parkway, UW-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary, Allouez Riverside Park, Abbey Pond, Ashwaubomay Park, Duck Creek Estuary, Fort Howard Wildlife Area, Barkhausen Waterfowl Preserve, the Malchow/Olson Tract, and Sensiba South.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Emergent Marsh (Inland) page.

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Emergent Marsh (riparian)

This community is an open wetland on mineral soils along the banks of slow-moving rivers and streams. Marsh soils are inundated for much of the year, and the vegetation consists of emergent macrophytes. Dominant native plants include cattails (Typha latifolia), bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp., Bolboschoenus fluviatilis), arrowheads (Sagittaria spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.). Covering about 2% of the LGBFR AOC, riparian emergent marshes are now dominated by three invasive species: common reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis), reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), and hybrid cattail (Typha × glauca). Plant diversity, including both emergent and submergent vegetation, create a healthy ecosystem. The plants provide oxygen and filter the water by absorbing certain nutrients and preventing algal blooms. Riparian emergent marshes also provide safe spawning habitat for fish and nesting habitat for birds and amphibians.

Emergent marsh (riparian) occurs sparsely in the LGBFR AOC at the Leo Frigo Memorial Bridge near the mouth of the Fox River, Ashwaubenon Creek, Ashwaubomay Park, Duck Creek, and Sensiba South.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Emergent Marsh (Riparian) page.

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Emergent Marsh (roadside)

This plant community consists of species characteristic of emergent marshes growing in wet, roadside ditches that often hold standing water until mid-summer. The encroachment of woody species into such areas is typically suppressed by mowing. Native dominants, when present, include cattails (Typha latifolia), bulrushes (Schoenoplectus pungens and S. tabernaemontani), arrowheads (Sagittaria latifolia), northern water-plantain (Alisma triviale), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), true rushes (Juncus spp.), and true sedges (Carex spp., especially C. bebbii and C. vulpinoidea). Covering about 1% of the LGBFR AOC, roadside emergent marshes are often invaded by common reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis) reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), hybrid cattail (Typha × glauca), and narrow-leaved cattail (Typha angustifolia). Native plant diversity, including both emergent and submergent vegetation, creates a healthy ecosystem. Despite human disturbance, some marsh birds, such as Red-winged Blackbird (Ixobrychus exilis), use this habitat for nesting, and northern pike (Esox lucius) use these riparian corridors to travel to inland spawning habitats (e.g., west shore).

Emergent marsh (roadside) can be found near Bay Beach, Ashwaubenon Creek, Dutchman Creek, the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay Campus, the railroad complex on the West side, Duck Creek, and along interstates and highways. Especially noteworthy examples occur along Lineville Road.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Emergent Marsh (Roadside) page.

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Fox River Open Water

This habitat type refers to the open water of the Fox River (i.e., lower Fox River), which is a third order stream that flows northeast starting from Lake Winnebago and emptying into the bay of Green Bay. Within the LGBFR AOC, this open water category runs from the De Pere Dam to the mouth of the Fox River. The shipping channel in the lower bay of Green Bay continues down the Fox River roughly 6.5 km upstream to the south with depths of up to 7.32 km (24 ft) in the river. Waters along the eastern and western shorelines of the Fox River range from 0.30-1.22 km (1-4 ft) deep. Sediments consist of sand and clay. The East River, Ashwaubenon Creek, and Dutchman Creek are smaller second order streams that empty into the Fox River. Critical fish spawning habitat occurs in this community type by the De Pere Dam for lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens), walleye (Sander vitreus), smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), and lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis). Other spawning reefs and areas are located along the edges of the Fox River. Waterways by the De Pere Dam Fox River are known for being hosting a world-class walleye fishery. Two submergent marshes are located along the eastern shoreline by the Fox Point Boat Launch and in the outer reaches and mouth of Ashwaubenon Creek adjacent to the Fox River on the western Fox River shoreline. Besides fish, odonates (dragonflies + damselflies), birds (especially waterfowl and waterbirds), bats, anurans (frogs + toads), and turtles use the waterways, air space, and/or terrestrial riparian habitats of the Fox River Open Water community.

Summary information on fish usage based on research conducted by Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources’ Steve Hogler, Brown County’s Charles Larscheid, and others.

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Great Lakes Beach

Great Lakes beach community is found along the coast of Lake Michigan and accounts for just over 1% of land area in the AOC, a small fraction of the undeveloped beach habitat that once occurred here. Great Lakes beach habitats are usually sparsely vegetated due to the strong influence of fluctuating water levels and erosion from breaking waves. However, the upper beach zone, which is typically affected by wind-blown sand and wave spray, supports a unique assemblage of native herbaceous plants. Characteristic dominants of this community in the AOC include American sea-rocket (Cakile edentula subsp. edentula var. lacustris), Canada wild-rye (Elymus canadensis), smooth goldenrod (Solidago gigantea), beach pea (Lathyrus japonicus var. maritimus), and common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium, dubiously native). American red raspberry (Rubus idaeus subsp. strigosus) is sometimes present at the inland periphery of beach zone. These species may be accompanied by a diversity of non-native, eudicot forb species. Seaside spurge (Euphorbia polygonifolia), a matted annual forb that is of conservation concern in Wisconsin, is tenuously present at one locality.

Great Lakes beach also offers a critical habitat for foraging, resting, and breeding areas for shorebirds and other animals. Since 2016, the federally endangered Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) has successfully nested in sandy beach habitat within the LGBFR AOC at the Cat Island Chain Restoration Site. Turtles also use sandy beach areas for nesting and basking, although little information is available about their use of beaches in this AOC. The hairy-necked tiger beetle (Cicindela hirticollis rhodensis), a state endangered species, was found on Cat Island beach habitat during the summer of 2017 by Jay Watson. We expect that this species might also be found on other beaches (e.g., Longtail Point) within the AOC. Other rare or uncommon beach invertebrates also likely are present or are potential colonists of remnant beach habitat in the LGBFR AOC.

Unconsolidated beach habitat was specifically listed as a target for restoration by the original LGBFR AOC RAP (WDNR 2016), primarily because of the importance of this habitat type for fish and wildlife populations, especially shorebird populations. Lane et al. (1996) noted that the majority of Great Lakes fish species spawn in shallow water, typically on gravel or sand substrates, so maintaining quality beach habitat helps maintain the integrity of important aquatic habitats as well as the land-water interface itself. Reid and Mandrak (2008) likewise described negative effects of beach development on shoreline fish assemblages in northern Lake Erie.

Great Lakes beach habitat was once widespread in there LGBFR AOC but today is represented by only small remnants. Undeveloped Great Lakes beach habitat occurs along the shoreline within the LGBFR AOC at Point au Sable, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Amusement Park Shoreline, Cat Island Chain Restoration Site, and Longtail Point. Some of these beaches are used extensively for recreation.

Based mainly on our field surveys, the overall condition score for Great Lakes beach habitat is low. Most of the remaining beach habitat in the LGBFR AOC is in poor condition, being highly invaded by Phragmites or other non-native plants, and in many areas naturally occurring sand is covered in zebra and quagga mussel shells. Since much of the remaining Great Lakes beach habitat is publicly owned, however, the possibility of restoration is high. Privately owned beach sections along Point au Sable would benefit from a conservation easement agreement. Limiting access to beaches during peak migration periods for shorebirds and if present, during Piping Plover breeding is important. Beaches are used extensively by migratory birds and bats based on our field research. The diversity and abundance of beach invertebrates in lower Green Bay is poorly known and deserves future study, especially for rare species like the hairy-necked tiger beetle. Other conservation actions to improve the condition of Great Lakes beaches in the LGBFR AOC include providing shoreline deadwood for turtle basking and fish habitat, removing accumulations of dreissenid mussel shells, controlling invasive species in the nearshore zone, and maintaining native plant communities in adjacent floodplain or upland buffers.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Great Lakes Beach page.

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Green Bay Open Water

Green Bay Open Water consists of the open water/pelagic zone of the lower bay of Green Bay, which is the western arm of Lake Michigan. Shallow areas range from roughly 0.30 m to 1.83 m in depth to deeper areas that can be up to 4.88 m deep, with the exception of the shipping channel, which can be up to 7.32-7.92 m deep. The Fox River empties into the lower bay, and the water currents move in a counterclockwise direction starting by traveling up the eastern shore to Sturgeon Bay, at which point the currents turn west. Sediments largely consist of sand and silt.

Special features include Point Sable Bar and Frying Pan Shoal, which is a drowned sandbar that extends from Point Sable on the eastern shoreline of the bay to Long Tail Point on the west shore. Historically, in low water years, Native Americans used to walk on foot from Point Sable to the west shore. To the southeast of the mouth of the Fox River is Renard Island, which is a confined disposal facility used for storing shipping channel dredge material. There is a fish spawning reef around Renard Island, the McDonald Marina, and Joliet Park. The Cat Island Chain Restoration Site on the west shore, which consists of a >3 km-long causeway, was constructed to restore the historic barrier islands of the Cat Island Chain for fish and wildlife habitat while simultaneously filling shipping channel dredge material in the island “cells.” Extensive submergent marshes line the outer edges of the Green Bay Open Water community, particularly along the west shore in Dead Horse Bay and the mouth of Duck Creek in the southwest corner of the bay.

Over 80 species of fish have been reported in the Green Bay Open Water community, many waterfowl species use these waters during migration, colonial nesting birds utilize the bay’s islands for breeding, and invertebrates use the water and nearshore habitat.

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Hardwood Swamp

Hardwood Swamps are forested wetlands dominated by broadleaf, deciduous trees. Typically, hardwood swamp communities occur along lakes, streams, and especially in lowland areas that are poorly drained. Soils characteristic of this habitat are hydric, loamy sands. The most common canopy dominants of hardwood swamps in the LGBFR AOC are green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), red maple (Acer rubrum), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor). A woody shrub layer is commonly present and often includes nannyberry (Viburnum lentago), shrubby dogwoods (Cornus spp.), and winterberry holly (Ilex verticillata). The herbaceous layer is often dominated by graminoid monocots, including fowl manna grass (Glyceria striata), eastern wild-rye (Elymus virginicus), and a large diversity of true sedge species (especially, Carex cristatella, C. echinodes, C. intumescens, C. lupulina, C. radiata, and C. stipata). Characteristc forbs of hardwood swamps include jewelweed (Impatiens capensis), sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), blue skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), great blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica), calico aster (Symphyotrichum lateriflorum), and bedstraw species (Galium spp.). Hardwood swamp forests on the west shore of Green Bay that are dominated by red maple tend to have an herbaceous understory, including more acidophilic forbs, such as starflower (Trientalis borealis), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), spinulose wood fern (Dryopteris carthusiana), and several violet species (Viola spp.). Glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus) and, to a lesser extent, common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), are pestilential invasives of the shrub layer of AOC swamp forest communities where they eventually can completely shade out the herbaceous understory. Invasive honeysuckle species (Lonicera × bella and parent species of this hybrid, L. morrowii and L. tartarica) are also highly problematic invaders of the shrub tier of these wetland forest communities. Many amphibians and birds use hardwood swamps for breeding habitat, while dozens of migratory songbird species feed on insects and berries in these forests during spring and fall migration.

Hardwood swamp occurs throughout the LGBFR AOC is the most abundant habitat type within the area, covering about 30% of the land. Locations of hardwood swamp include Point au Sable, St. Francis Tributary, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary West and East, Bay Beach Amusement Park Shoreline, Allouez Riverside Park, Jones Point, Nicolet Bank Forest, Voyager Park, Fox River Trail, Ashwaubenon Creek, Ashwaubomay Park, Dutchman Creek, Duck Creek, Fort Howard Wildlife Area, Barkhausen Waterfowl Preserve, Malchow/Olson Tract, Long Tail Beach, and Sensiba South.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Hardwood Swamp page.

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Northern Mesic Forest

Northern mesic forests occur on loamy soils of glacial till plains and cover about 2% of the LGBFR AOC. Canopy dominants of mesic forests within the LGBFR AOC are sugar maple (Acer saccharum), basswood (Tilia americana), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and black walnut (Juglans nigra). Younger secondary forests may also include eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) as canopy dominants. American elm (Ulmus americana), alternate-leaf dogwood (Cornus alternifolia), and hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) may contribute to a woody subcanopy tier. Frost grape (Vitis riparia) and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) are conspicuous as woody climbers. Common shrubs include American highbush cranberry (Viburnum trilobum), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), and currant/gooseberry species (Ribes spp., especially R. americanum and R. cynosbati). The herbaceous understory is diverse and includes many showy spring ephemerals, such as bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), wild ginger (Asarum canadense), Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), red baneberry (Actaea rubra), and large-flowered trillium (Trillium grandiflorum). Sedges (Carex spp.), ferns (including Deparia arcostichoides and Athyrium filix-femina), and an array of other forbs (including Circaea canadensis, Smilax ecirrhata, and Solidago flexicaulis) are typically also present.

Invasive species of LGBFR AOC northern mesic forests consist of both shrubs and herbs. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) is the most problematic invasive woody species in many areas, but its success as a weed is closely matched by showy bush honeysuckle (Lonicera × bella and parent species, L. morrowii and L. tartarica), European highbush cranberry (Viburnum opulus), glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus), and autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata). Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) and dame’s rocket (Hesperis matronalis) are herbaceous invasive species of these forest communities that may be difficult to eradicate once they become established.

Northern mesic forests have four different stages of growth: late seral, mid seral, early seral, and young seral. Late seral forests, also known as old growth forests, typically have the highest species diversity of these four stages. Old growth forests also have the greatest range of tree size and age, greatest architectural complexity, and ample woody debris at many stages of decomposition. In contrast, mid-seral forests are characteristically composed of trees of more similar size and age, with trunks of relatively smaller diameter (28-38⁺ cm dbh). Older and larger trees may be present as widely scattered individuals, and more mature mid seral forests will include saplings as the woody understory differentiates. Trees of yet younger age and smaller bole size (12.7-28 cm dbh) that exist in stands of uniform age (or sometimes two age classes) characterize early seral forests. Early seral forest floors have little accumulation of woody debris. High competition inhibits new saplings from growing. Young seral forests, the least mature of the four seral stages, grow from clear-cutting or a high disturbance event. Woody debris may be largely absent or, if present, may be either highly decayed or fresh, depending on the type of disturbance. Young seral forests are composed of trees with boles of up to 12.7 cm dbh, and have low species diversity. The highest quality northern mesic forests of the LGBFR AOC are at the (late) mid-seral stage of maturity.

The LGBFR AOC is closely positioned to the Tension Zone, which roughly delimits the northern limit of several plant species that are distributed in southern Wisconsin. Species composition of canopy trees of mesic forests in the AOC partly reflects this boundary, with shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) and black walnut (Juglans nigra) confined to mesic forests on the east shore of Green Bay. These two walnut family (Juglandaceae) species are characteristic elements of southern mesic forests (particularly C. ovata, which reaches its northern limit of distribution in Wisconsin near the Door County line), and their presence imparts a distinctively ‘southern’ aspect to mesic forests on the east shore.

This habitat can be found in the AOC at Point au Sable, Wequiock Creek, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Red Smith Woods, near St. Francis Park, St. Norbert campus, Cottage Grove Complex, and Malchow/Olson Tract.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Northern Mesic Forest page.

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Inland Open Water

Including small retention ponds, there are several inland bodies of open water in the LGBFR AOC, though there are five areas with a significant amount of inland open water that provide important habitat for fish and wildlife, including: 1) Point Sable lagoon in the Town of Scott, 2) Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary ponds in Green Bay, 3) west shore suburban ponds in Suamico, 4) pond just south of Hurlbut Street in Green Bay, and 5) Abbey Pond in De Pere. Habitats surrounding open water (inland) may include emergent marsh (inland), shrub carr, and hardwood swamp.

Many different bird species utilize inland open water (or adjacent habitats) for breeding, such as Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), Purple Martin (Progne subis), Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), and Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), as well as stopover habitat for migratory waterfowl (e.g., Northern Shoveler (Spatula clypeata), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola). Inland water bodies are particularly important to marsh-obligate breeding birds during low water level years in the bay of Green Bay when few deep emergent marshes are available. Many different fish species and odonates (dragonflies + damselflies) also use inland ponds, including odonate species, such as eastern forktail (Ischnura verticalis) and twelve-spotted skimmer (Libellula pulchella).

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Inland Open Water page.

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Other Forest

Early successional forests in the LGBFR AOC are typically dominated by trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), with wetter sites sometimes also including box elder (Acer negundo), peach-leaved willow (Salix amygdaloides), and crack willow (Salix × fragilis) as dominants. These forests typically have an open canopy and an understory that is often dominated by invasive species. Pine plantations are also considered as ‘other forests.’ Such forests do not readily fit into any widely recognized plant community type and thus are placed in ‘other forests.’ Accounting for 7% of the LGBFR AOC habitat, these forests are the four largest habitat type.

Other forest are found in the LGBFR AOC at Point au Sable, St. Francis Tributary, Barina Parkway, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Wildlife Sancturay, Frigo Bridge Inlet, Fox River Trail, Allouez Riverside Park, St. Norbert campus, Voyager Park, Ashwaubenon Creek, Wisconsin Public Service of Green Bay complex, Ken Euers Nature Area, Duck Creek, Cottage Grove Complex, Peter's Marsh, Barkhausen Waterfowl Preserve, and Sensiba South.

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Shrub Carr

Shrub carr covers around 4% of the LGBFR AOC and is a transitional community type that occurs between open wetlands and forested wetlands. Hence, it occurs near bodies of water and may develop near rivers, ponds, and lakes. This wetland community is dominated by broadleaf, deciduous shrubs that can spread clonally by means of rhizomatous growth. Shrubby willow species (Salix spp., especially S. petiolaris, S. eriocephala, and S. interior) are typically aspect dominant, along with red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea), silky dogwood (C. amomum), and meadowsweet (Spiraea alba). The native herbaceous species composition of LGBFR AOC shrub carr is similar to that of southern sedge meadows, and these two plant community types often appear form a mosaic in less disturbed coastal habitats. Glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus) is the most common woody invasive species of shrub carr, but appears to be less competitive in this community type than in hardwood swamp forests. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), and, to a lesser extent, common reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis), are problematic invaders of the herbaceous stratum, and displace native graminoids and forbs.

Alder thicket, dominated by speckled alder (Alnus incana var. rugosa), may occupy the same zone in the transition from open, wetland plant communities to forests. This shrub-dominated wetland community is now rare in the LGBFR AOC, present only on the Malchow/Olson Tract, where it occurs near the shore of the bay of Green Bay. Edge- or shrub-associated bird species, such as Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) and Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), use shrub carr for nesting habitat.

In the LGBFR AOC shrub carr is found at Abbey Pond, Duck Creek, Peter's Marsh, Fort Howard Wildlife Area, Malchow/Olson Tract, Barkhausen Waterfowl Preserve, and Sensiba South. It is most common and best developed on the west shore of the bay of Green Bay.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Shrub Carr page.

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Southern Dry Mesic Forest

This upland forest type in the LGBFR AOC is characterized by an oak-dominated canopy of both red oak (Quercus rubra) and white oak (Quercus alba). American basswood (Tilia americana), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) typically also contribute to the canopy. Black cherry (Prunus serotina) is characteristically present in the subcanopy. Southern dry mesic forests occur on well-drained, loamy soils formed in till, and cover about 1% of the habitat in the LGBFR AOC.

In the LGBFR AOC, southern dry mesic forests are found on the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Optimist Point, Ashwaubomay Park, Dutchman Creek, and near Longtail Beach Road.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Southern Dry Mesic Forest page.

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Submergent Marsh

Submergent marsh, an aquatic habitat comprised of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), occurs in lakes, ponds, and rivers, commonly at depths between 0.2­ m and 3.0 m. In the LGBFR AOC submergent marsh accounts for about 5% of the study area that we have defined. SAV in this ecosystem consists of species from 12 plant families that have highly modified growth forms and exist as fully submergent or floating-leaf macrophytes. Characteristic native dominants include sago pondweed (Stuckenia pectinata), true pondweeds (Potamogeton spp., especially P. foliosus and P. nodosus), waterweeds (Elodea canadensis and E. nuttallii), eel-grass (Vallisneria americana), water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spp., especially M. sibiricum), bladderworts (Utricularia spp., especially U. vulgaris), and coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum). Duckweeds (Lemna minor and L. turionifera; Spirodela polyrrhiza; Wolffia spp.) are ubiquitous as floating-leaved macrophytes. Members of the water-lily family (Nymphaea odorata and Nuphar variegata) may also be present in submergent marshes that are protected from strong wave action. Three invasive submergent species, namely Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), curly-leaf pondweed (Potamogeton crispus), and eutrophic water-nymph (Najas minor), are occasionally present in submergent marshes of the LGBFR AOC, but infrequently become dominants. Many ecological factors affect the species composition of submergent marshes, including water depth, water chemistry, water movement, and bottom substrate. Submergent marshes are distinct from mats of the nuisance filamentous green macroalga Cladophora glomerata, which occurs widely in the Great Lakes and appears to have increased since the widespread establishment of dreissenid mussels (Higgins et al. 2008, Althouse et al. 2014).

Much like emergent marsh communities, submergent marshes may help enhance water quality by acting as a nutrient sink and enhancing nitrification/denitrification processes in the benthos (Kufel and Kufel 2002). Studies in Florida have demonstrated that SAV is particularly effective in sequestering phosphorus from polluted waters (Dierberg et al. 2002). The plant community of submergent marshes stabilizes lake and river bottoms, reduces shoreline erosion, and improves water clarity by reducing resuspension of sediments (Dennison et al. 1993). Many fish species use submergent marshes for feeding, spawning, and predator avoidance (Rozas and Odum 1988). Ducks and waterfowl forage on many SAV species, especially eel grass (Crowder and Bristow 1988, Knapton et al. 1999).

In the LGBFR AOC, submergent marshes are found at Point au Sable, UW-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary, Abbey Pond, Ashwaubomay Park, bay of Green Bay, Duck Creek, Ken Euers Nature Area, Malchow/Olson Tract, and Longtail Point. Turbidity is currently a serious problem in the LGBFR AOC, and impaired water clarity surely limits the extent of submergent marsh in the lower bay and Fox River.

The potential for improving the condition of SAV in the LGBFR AOC seems to be high. At Point au Sable, for example, elimination of dense, monotypic Phragmites stands between 2012 and 2015 coupled with rising water levels led to a dramatic re-establishment of native SAV in the coastal lagoon, without any artificial planting or translocation of species. Patrick et al. (2016) found that shoreline armoring reduces the growth of SAV in Chesapeake Bay, suggesting that removal of bulkhead, rip-rap, and other artificial shoreline features may be an effective contributor to increased extent of SAV in estuarine ecosystems like the LGBFR AOC.

Restoration of SAV in shallow lakes has been well-studied in Europe, and guidelines for re-establishment of desirable species have been presented by Hilt et al. (2006) and others. Many of their recommendations (e.g., dredging removal of phosphorus rich sediments) are not applicable to large, wind-affected systems like lower Green Bay, but the importance of water clarity in restoring and maintaining SAV is highly relevant. Construction of nearshore structures that reduce turbidity and sediment resuspension likely will promote SAV growth in affected shallow waters.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Submergent Marsh page.

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Surrogate Grassland (old field, upland shrub)

Historically, grasslands were widespread in Wisconsin but now only remain in small pockets of habitat. Farming and urban development have contributed to the decrease of savannah habitat. As a result, tallgrass prairies are now the most diminished and threatened plant communities in the Midwest. Surrogate grasslands offer a similar prairie-like, high-light environment for plants and animals. However, it is highly unlikely that any old-field surrogate grasslands within the LGBFR AOC originally had prairie vegetation. In the LGBFR AOC, about 6% of the land is categorized as old field/upland shrub surrogate grassland.

This category of surrogate grassland includes hayfields, pastures, parks, mowed fields and fields dominated by shrubs. Although such areas are typically dominated by non-native and often highly invasive species, the very rare, highest quality examples of this ecosystem include dominant grass species such as Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) and switch grass (Panicum virgatum).

Within the LGBFR AOC, old field/upland shrub surrogate grassland occurs at Point au Sable, Wequiock Creek, Barina Parkway, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus, Bay Beach Wildlife Sanctuary, Fox River Trail, Abbey Pond, Ashwaubomay Park, Ken Euers Nature Area, Duck Creek, and Sensiba South.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Surrogate Grassland (old field, upland shrub) page.

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Surrogate Grassland Restored

Historically, grasslands were widespread but now only remain in small pockets of habitat. Farming and urban development have contributed to the decrease in savannah habitat. As a result, tallgrass prairies are now the most diminished and threatened plant communities in the Midwest. Surrogate grasslands now offer a similar prairie environment for plants and animals. In the LGBFR AOC, less than 1% of the land is categorized as restored surrogate grassland. This category of surrogate grassland includes fields planted with natural prairie grasses. The dominant grass species include Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), and switch grass (Panicum virgatum). However, these restored grasslands still fall short of the rich species diversity of the original prairies.

This habitat is found at the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay campus (Keith White Prairie + UWGB Oak Savanna), and Fox River Trail within the LGBFR AOC.

To view maps of Surrogate Grassland Restored in the AOC, click here.

For more information on this habitat visit the Wisconsin DNR's Surrogate Grassland Restored page.

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Tributary Open Water

This habitat type refers to the open water of tributaries whose boundaries fall within the LGBFR AOC study area; nearly every river, stream, and creek found within these boundaries empty into the bay of Green Bay or the Fox River. Significant streams found along the east shore of the LGBFR AOC are Wequiock Creek, which flows through the Town of Scott and Point Sable, and Mahon Creek, which traverses through the UW-Green Bay campus. Along the eastern shoreline of the Fox River just north of the Main Street bridge is the East River. On the Fox River’s western shoreline is Dutchman Creek just north of the Highway 172 bridge and Ashwaubenon Creek, which empties to the south of the bridge. Several streams empty into the lower bay along the west shore, though Duck Creek is by far the most significant.

Tributaries provide critical habitat for many fish species for migration, spawning, foraging, sheltering, and nurseries throughout different times of year. For example, Mahon Creek provides habitat for spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius), rainbow darter (Etheostoma caeruleum), redside dace (Clinostomus elongatus), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and others. Northern pike (Esox lucius) utilize both small tributaries and roadside ditches along the west shore as migration corridors. Wequiock Creek within Point Sable is used by yellow perch as nursery habitat and by predatory fish (e.g., shortnose gar [Lepisosteus platostomus], bowfin [Amia calva]) for spawning habitat. Aquatic invertebrates, such as freshwater mussels, also use Tributary Open Water habitat (e.g., Wequiock Creek).

Summary information on fish usage of tributaries based on research conducted by UW-Green Bay students Eric Struck, David Lawrence, Angelena Koosmann, and Collin Moratz.

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Wet Meadow

Wet meadow largely follows the WDNR Southern Sedge Meadow natural community description, described as open wetland in which various sedges (e.g., Carex spp.) and Canada bluejoint grass (Calamagrastis canadensis) dominate. However, this plant community definition has been expaned to additional characteristics observed in wet prairies, wet-mesic prairies, conservation meadows, etc. as an attempt to focus more on the functions provided by these transitional habitats (e.g., pollinator, nesting habitat, etc.).

Wet meadow is one of the rarest plant community types today in the LGBFR AOC. Mostly occurring between coastal emergent marsh and shrub carr at or near water level in the Great Lakes coastal zone (Curtis 1959), this open wetland type is dominated by Canada bluejoint grass, tussock sedge (Carex stricta), and common lake sedge (C. lacustris). Canada bluejoint grass and tussock sedge both produce a system of short rhizomes that, over several growing seasons, will accrete to form a mound or tussock upon which new growth emerges. The abundance of these tussocks gives southern sedge meadows a distinctive physiognomy and high plant species richness (Peach and Zedler 2006). American water horehound (Lycopus americanus), lance-leaved panicled aster (Symphyotrichum lanceolatum), spotted joe-pye-weed (Eutrochium maculatum), marsh bellflower (Campanula aparinoides), and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) are also characteristically present in this community, along with a large diversity of other herbaceous species. However, within the LGBFR AOC, reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) may dominate southern sedge meadows, and can sometimes form monodominant stands.

Air photos from 1938, a low-water period, show extensive areas of coastal meadows in the LGBFR AOC that likely were dominated by tussock sedge (Carex stricta) and Canada bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis canadensis). By 1960, drainage ditches were constructed in many of these wet meadows (e.g., north of the Duck Creek Delta, Point au Sable, Atkinson’s Marsh west of the Fox River mouth), altering the topography and hydrology of these important wetlands. Later, invasion of reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), Phragmites australis, and hybrid cattail (Typha × glauca) further altered these wetlands, leaving just small remnants of native southern sedge meadow habitat. Carex/Calamagrostis meadows today have been replaced almost entirely by mosaics of weedy forbs and non-native grasses or nearly monotypic stands of hybrid cattail during high water periods.

Another threat to the diversity of southern sedge meadow habitats in the LGBFR AOC is the encroachment of shrubs and trees. Occasional fires prevent woody succession, but drainage ditches and fire suppression have allowed shrubs and trees to invade and remain established in areas that were once open wet meadows.

Although extensive tracts of southern sedge meadow have disappeared from the LGBFR AOC, small but quality examples of southern sedge meadow occur at Point au Sable, Fort Howard Wildlife Area, and the Malchow/Olson Tract (not found during the 2015 habitat mapping effort). Bird species, such as Sandhill Crane (Antigonecanadensis), American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), Yellow Rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis), and Sedge Wren (Cistothorus platensis), use southern sedge meadow for nesting habitat (Mossman and Sample 1990). Other rare or uncommon animal species also may occur in large, high quality sedge meadows, including Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) and sensitive wetland insects like the skippers Dion skipper (Euphyes dion), broad-winged skipper (Poanes viator), and mulberry wing (Poanes massasoit; Miller et al. 2009).

For more information on this habitat, visit the Wisconsin DNR's Southern Sedge Meadow page and Wet Prairie page.

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