Black-and-white Warbler

Distribution and Abundance

• BBS Map | CBC Map
• Breeding range eastern and central United States, and eastern and central Canada.
• No significant historical changes in range from what Audubon has recorded (1840).
• May be declining somewhat in areas subjected to severe forest fragmentation, however, there is no trend suggesting a population decline or increase for the species as a whole. BBS data indicate insignificant short-term changes for both eastern and central regions (Sauer and Droege 1992), although significant decreases were indicated for the Great Lakes Plain area.
• Winter range extends from southeast United States into Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, and northern South America.

Habitat

• Mature and second-growth deciduous and mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, with a possible preference for swampy forests. Shows a strong preference for mature forest over early successional habitat (James 1971), also forested wetlands (Swift et al. 1984). In managed areas of even-aged stands in Pennsylvania, was found to have more territories in mature than successional aspen and oak; and although present in or on all strata, found mostly in the lower midstory (Yahner 1986).
• In Wisconsin, 62.4% of 694 observations from 1995-2000 were in upland mixed forest, particularly with pines or spruce, or upland hardwood forest, particularly aspen or maple (WSO 2002). In Michigan, 50% of observations from 1983-1988 for this species were in mesic or wet mixed forests (Brewer et al. 1991). 
• Selects forest with more tall trees and more open understory in northeast and north-central U.S. than in more northern areas of its range (Noon et al. 1980). In Minnesota and Maine, prefers areas with large trees (Collins 1983). In central Ontario, this species is most associated with high tree density and high canopy volume (Clark et al. 1983).
• Nest site usually in deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous woods, usually on ground against shrub or tree. Nest is well hidden. Often nests along hillsides or ravines, with a tendency to favor swampier places (Harrison 1978).
• Migratory habitat mostly forests and woodlots, especially riparian. 
• Winter habitats varied from early successional disturbed areas to mature forests, including both moist and dry forests as well as mangroves.

Behavior

• Insectivorous.
• On territory, inclined to become aggressive toward conspecifics and other wood-warblers and to maintain a high level of aggression well beyond the time when aggressive behavior has attenuated in other species (Morse 1970, 1989).  When foraging, sometimes engages in chases, mostly against conspecifics (Burtt 1986). Male chases female after she arrives on territory.
• Number of territories depends on habitat type: from 11 / 40.5 ha in virgin hardwood deciduous forest to 21 / 40.5 ha in dense second growth in Maryland (Stewart and Robbins 1958); 14 / 40.5 ha in dry, mature forest to 29 / 40.5 ha in moist mature forest in Arkansas (James and Neal 1986); and 14 / 100 ha in 30-and 60-yr old aspen forest to 28.7 / 100 ha in 14-yr old clearcut aspen in west-central Alberta (Westworth and Telfer 1993).
• Intraspecific territorial intrusions are rare.
• Both parents feed young and defend nest. Females perform distraction displays (Davis 1989).
• There is evidence of breeding territory philopatry in that banded individuals have been recaptured at the same study sites in subsequent years (Anderson and Maxfield 1967).
• This species is routinely found among mixed foraging flocks on wintering grounds.

Parasitism and Predation

• Brown-headed Cowbird only known brood parasite. No evidence this species rejects cowbird eggs.
• Bent (1953) reported a nest in Michigan with 10 eggs, 2 warbler eggs and 8 Brown-headed Cowbird eggs.
• In Wisconsin, only 3 of 477 confirmed Brown-headed Cowbird observations from 1995-2000 listed Black-and-white Warbler as host species (WSO 2002). In Ontario, 9 of 43 nests were parasitized (Peck and James 1983).
•  In Arkansas, 26% of 19 nests experienced predation (Martin 1993). Little information available, but as a ground nester, this species is probably vulnerable to predation.

Conservation and Management

• A study from 1971 to 1981 revealed 504 Black-and-white Warblers were killed on impact with a large building during spring migration, whereas only 10 died during fall migration (Taylor and Kershner 1986).
• This species showed a 58% decline in abundance from 1974-1975 on BBS routes that were sprayed with fenitrothion and phosphamidon; during the same period, the species showed a 39% increase in abundance on unsprayed routes (Pearse et al. 1976).
• Potentially subject to negative effects of forest fragmentation (Galli et al. 1976, Whitcomb et al. 1977). Described as a forest-interior sensitive species (Askins and Philbrick 1987, Freemark and Collins 1992). Estimated to require a minimum of 295 ha of continuous forest to maintain a viable breeding population (Robbins 1979). Has declined in areas where fragmentation has occurred (Morse 1989) and has been negatively affected by widespread clear-cutting (Freedman et al. 1981).
• BBS trend results from 1966-2000 (Sauer et al. 2001) in the Northern Spruce-Hardwoods region indicate the Black-and-white Warbler has remained reasonably stable in this region  (0.5, p=0.28 Trend Graph S28); in the Great Lakes Transition region, this species may have experienced an increase (1.8, p=0.32 Trend Graph S20). Survey-wide (US and Canada), numbers of this species have remained stable (0.1, p=0.88 Trend Graph SUR).

For more information about the conservation and management of the Black-and-white Warbler, please see the Species Management Abstract, from the Conserve Online public library, maintained by The Nature Conservancy.

References

• Anderson, K.S. and H.K. Maxfield. 1967. Warbler returns from southeastern Massachusetts. Bird Banding 43:218-233.
• Askins, R.A. and M.J. Philbrick. 1987. Effect of changes in regional forest abundance on the decline and recovery of a forest bird community. Wilson Bull. 99:7-21.
• Audubon, J.J. 1840. The birds of America. Chevalier, Philadelphia, PA.
• Bent, A.C. 1953. Life histories of North American wood warblers. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203.
• Brewer, R., G.A. McPeek and R.J. Adams, Jr. 1991. The atlas of breeding birds of Michigan. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing.
• Burtt, E.H., Jr. 1986. An analysis of physical, physiological, and optical aspects of avian coloration with emphasis on wood-warblers. Ornithol. Monogr. 38.
• Clark, K., D. Euler and E. Armstrong. 1983. Habitat associations of breeding birds in cottage and natural areas in central Ontario. Wilson Bull. 95:77-96.
• Collins, S.L. 1983. Geographic variation in habitat structure for the wood-warblers in Maine and Minnesota. Oecologia 59:246-252.
• Davis, W.E., Jr. 1989. Distraction display or "injury feigning" in birds. Bird Observer 17:125-127.
• Freedman, B., C. Beauchamp, I.A. McLaren and S.I. Tingley. 1981. Forestry management practices and populations of breeding birds in a hardwood forest in Novia Scotia. Can. Field-Nat. 95:307-311.
• Freemark, K. and B. Collins. 1992. Landscape ecology of birds breeding in temperate forest fragments. Pp. 443-454 in Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J.M. Hagan III and D.W. Johnston, eds.). Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.
• Galli, A.E., C.F. Leck and R.T.T. Forman. 1976. Avian distribution patterns in forest islands of different sizes in central New Jersey. Auk 93:356-364.
• Harrison, C. 1978. A field guide to birds' nests in the United States east of the Mississippi River. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.
• James, D.A. and J.C. Neal. 1986. Arkansas birds. Univ. of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville.
• James, F.C. 1971. Ordination of habitat relationships among breeding birds. Wilson Bull. 83:215-236.
• Martin, T.E. 1993. Nest predation among vegetation layers and habitat types: revising the dogmas. Am. Nat. 141:897-913.
• Morse, D.H. 1970. Ecological aspects of some mixed foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr. 40:119-168.
• Morse, D.H. 1989. American warblers. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.
• Noon, B.R., D.K. Dawson, D.B. Inkley, C.S. Robbins and S.H. Anderson. 1980. Consistency in habitat preference of forest bird species. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 45:226-244.
• Pearse, P.A., D.D. Peakall and A.J. Erskine. 1976. Impact on forest birds of the 1975 spruce budworm spray operation in New Brunswick. Can. Wildl. Serv. Progress Note 62.
• Peck, G.K. and R.D. James. 1983. Breeding birds in Ontario: nidiology and distribution. Vol. 2. Royal Ontario Mus., Toronto.
• Robbins, C.S. 1979. Effect of forest fragmentation on bird populations. Pp. 198-212 in Management of northcentral and northeastern forests for nongame birds (R.M. DeGraaf and K.E. Evans, eds). Gen. Tech. Rpt. NC-51, USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
• Sauer, J.R. and S. Droege. 1992. Geographic patterns in population trends of neotropical migrants in North America. Pp. 26-42 in Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J.M Hagen III and D.W. Johnston, eds.). Smithson. Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.
• Sauer, J.R., J.E. Hines and J. Fallon. 2001. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966-2000. Version 2001.2, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD.
• Stewart, R.E. and C.S. Robbins. 1958. Birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia. N.A. Fauna No. 62, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C.
• Swift, B.L., J.S. Larson and R.M. DeGraaf. 1984. Relationship of breeding bird density and diversity to habitat variables in forested wetlands. Wilson Bull. 96:48-59.
• Taylor, W.K. and M.A. Kershner. 1986. Migrant birds killed at the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), John F. Kennedy Space Center. J. Field. Ornithol. 57:142-153.
• Westworth, D.A. and E.S. Telfer. 1993. Summer and winter bird populations associated with five age-classes of aspen forest in Alberta. Can. J. For. Res. 23:1830-1836.
• Whitcomb, B.L., R.F. Whitcomb and D. Bystrak. 1977. Long-term turnover and effects of selective logging on the avifauna of forest fragments. Am. Birds 31:17-23.
• Wisconsin Society for Ornithology. 2002. Wisconsin Breeding Bird Atlas.
• Yahner, R.H. 1986. Structure, seasonal dynamics, and habitat relationships of avian communities in small even-aged forest stands. Wilson Bull. 98:61-82.